CIRCULATION AND PRESENTATION OF CANINE DISTEMPER VIRUS AMONG VARIOUS FOX SPECIES
CDV in foxes
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26873/SVR-1909-2024Keywords:
canine distemper virus, fox, Vulpes vulpes, Canidae, virus, morbidityAbstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly contagious and often fatal virus that affects members of the Canidae family. Foxes are susceptible to CDV, and outbreaks among fox populations have been reported in several species. The symptoms of distemper in foxes are similar to those in domestic dogs. Foxes may contract the virus directly from infected animals or via exposure to a contaminated environment. Among domestic animals’ dogs are often a source of infection for domestic and wildlife populations, while among wildlife primary sources are other wildlife through direct contact or vectors such as insects. This review comprehensively discusses the virus itself, its pathology, clinical signs, diagnostic methods, treatment options, preventive measures, and its impact on fox populations. Wildlife veterinarians and researchers monitor and study the impact of diseases like distemper on fox populations. Understanding the spread and prevalence of such diseases is crucial for wildlife conservation efforts.
Kroženje in predstavitev virusa pasje kuge med različnimi vrstami lisic
Izvleček: Virus pasje kuge (CDV) je zelo nalezljiv in pogosto smrtonosen virus, ki prizadene pripadnike družine Canidae. Lisice so dovzetne za CDV, o izbruhih v populacijah lisic pa so poročali pri več vrstah. Simptomi kuge pri lisicah so podobni tistim pri domačih psih. Lisice se lahko z virusom okužijo neposredno od okuženih živali ali z izpostavljenostjo okuženemu okolju. Med domačimi živalmi so psi pogosto vir okužbe za domače in divje živalske populacije, med divjimi živalmi pa so glavni vir okužbe druge divje živali prek neposrednega stika ali prenašalcev, kot so žuželke. Ta pregled izčrpno obravnava virus, njegovo patologijo, klinične znake, diagnostične metode, možnosti zdravljenja, preventivne ukrepe in njegov vpliv na populacije lisic. Veterinarji in raziskovalci prostoživečih živali spremljajo in preučujejo vpliv različnih bolezni, kot je kuga, na populacije lisic. Razumevanje prenosa in razširjenosti teh bolezni je ključno pri prizadevanjih za ohranjanje prostoživečih živali.
Ključne besede: virus pasje kuge; lisica; Vulpes vulpes; Canidae; virus; obolevnost
References
1. Martinez-Gutierrez M, Ruiz-Saenz J. Diversity of susceptible hosts in canine distemper virus infection: a systematic review and data synthesis. BMC Vet Res 2016, 12(1): 78. doi: 10.1186/s12917-016-0702-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-016-0702-z
2. Rosa GM, Santos N, Grøndahl-Rosado R, et al. Unveiling patterns of viral pathogen infection in free-ranging carnivores of northern Portugal using a complementary methodological approach. Com Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 69: 101432. doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101432 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101432
3. Silva ML, Caiaffa MG, da Costa ALM, et al. Canine distemper virus and canine adenovirus type 1 co-infection in a free-living hoary fox (Lycalopex vetulus) from Brazil. Braz J Microbiol 2023, 54(1): 587–95. doi: 10.1007/s42770-023-00921-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-023-00921-7
4. Loots A, Mitchell E, Dalton D, Kotze A, Venter E. Advances in canine distemper virus (CDV) pathogenesis research: a wildlife perspective. J Gen Virol 2017; 98(3): 311–21. doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.000666 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.000666
5. Oleaga Á, Vázquez CB, Royo LJ, et al. Canine distemper virus in wildlife in south-western Europe. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69(4): e473–e85. doi: 10.1111/tbed.14323 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14323
6. Ricci I, Cersini A, Manna G, et al. a canine distemper virus retrospective study conducted from 2011 to 2019 in central Italy (Latium and Tuscany Regions). Viruses 2021; 13(2): 272. doi: 10.3390/v13020272 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020272
7. Prpić J, Lojkić I, Keros T, Krešić N, Jemeršić L. Canine distemper virus infection in the free-living wild canines, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus), in Croatia. Pathogens 2023; 12(6): 833. doi: 10.3390/pathogens12060833 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12060833
8. Woo G-H, Jho Y-S, Bak E-J. Canine Distemper Virus Infection in Fennec Fox (Vulpes zerda). J Vet Med Sci 2010; 72(8): 1075–9. doi: 10.1292/jvms.09-0510 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.09-0510
9. Bourg M, Nobach D, Herzog S, et al. Screening red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) for possible viral causes of encephalitis. Virol J 2016; 13(1): 151. doi: 10.1186/s12985-016-0608-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-016-0608-1
10. Damien BC, Martina BEE, Losch S, Mossong J, Osterhaus ADME, Muller CP. Prevalence of antibodies against canine distemper virus among red foxes in Luxembourg. J Wildl Dis 2002; 38(4): 856–9. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-38.4.856 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-38.4.856
11. Kelly TR, Sleeman JM. Morbidity and mortality of red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) and gray foxes ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus ) admitted to the wildlife center of Virginia, 1993–2001. J Wildl Dis 2003; 39(2): 467–9. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-39.2.467 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-39.2.467
12. López-Peña M, Quiroga M, Vázquez S, Nieto J. Detection of canine distemper viral antigen in foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in northwestern Spain. J Wildl Dis 1994; 30: 95–8. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-30.1.95
13. Lariviere S. Fox. In: Abella J, eds. Encyclopaedia Britanica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/animal/fox-mammal (26. 3. 2023)
14. Lariviere S, Stains HJ. Carnivore - Mammal Classification In: Abella J, eds. Encyclopaedia Britanica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/animal/carnivore-mammal (31. 10. 2023)
15. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Cambridge: IUCN. https://www.iucnredlist.org/es (4. 2. 2022)
16. Lempp C, Jungwirth N, Grilo ML, et al. Pathological findings in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), stone marten (Martes foina) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), with special emphasis on infectious and zoonotic agents in Northern Germany. Markotter W, editor. PLoS One 2017; 12(4): e0175469. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175469 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175469
17. Zhao J-J, Yan X-J, Chai X-L, et al. Phylogenetic analysis of the haemagglutinin gene of canine distemper virus strains detected from breeding foxes, raccoon dogs and minks in China. Vet Microbiol 2010; 140(1/2): 34–42. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.07.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.07.010
18. Monne I, Fusaro A, Valastro V, et al. A distinct CDV genotype causing a major epidemic in Alpine wildlife. Vet Microbiol 2011; 150(1): 63–9. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.01.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.01.009
19. Kličková E, Černíková L, Dumondin A, Bártová E, Budíková M, Sedlák K. Canine distemper virus in wild carnivore populations from the Czech republic (2012–2020): occurrence, geographical distribution, and phylogenetic analysis. Life(Basel) 2022; 12(2): 289. doi: 10.3390/life12020289 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/life12020289
20. Tryland M, Balboni A, Killengreen ST, et al. A screening for canine distemper virus, canine adenovirus and carnivore protoparvoviruses in Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Norway. Polar Res 2018; 37(1): 1498678. doi: 10.1080/17518369.2018.1498678 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17518369.2018.1498678
21. Trogu T, Canziani S, Salvato S, et al. Canine distemper outbreaks in wild carnivores in northern Italy. Viruses 2021; 13(1): 99. doi: 10.3390/v13010099 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/v13010099
22. Kimpston CN, Hatke AL, Castelli B, et al. High prevalence of antibodies against canine parvovirus and canine distemper virus among coyotes and foxes from pennsylvania: implications for the intersection of companion animals and wildlife. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 26; 10(1): e02532. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.02532-21.
23. Davidson C. Declining downwind: amphibian population declines in California and historical pesticide use. Ecol Appl 2004; 14(6): 1892–902. doi: 10.1890/03-5224 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/03-5224
24. Kimpston CN, Hatke AL, Castelli B, et al. High prevalence of antibodies against canine parvovirus and canine distemper virus among coyotes and foxes from Pennsylvania: implications for the intersection of companion animals and wildlife. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10(1): e0253221. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.02532-21 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02532-21
25. Åkerstedt J, Lillehaug A, Larsen I-L, Eide NE, Arnemo JM, Handeland K. Serosurvey for canine distemper virus, canine adenovirus, leptospira interrogans, and toxoplasma gondii in free-ranging canids in Scandinavia and Svalbard. J Wildl Dis 2010; 46(2): 474–80. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-46.2.474 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-46.2.474
26. Taylor K, Wilson JJ, Park AW, et al. Temporal and spatial patterns in canine distemper virus cases in wildlife diagnosed at the southeastern cooperative wildlife disease study, 1975–2019. J Wildl Dis 2021; 57(4): 820–30. doi: 10.7589/JWD-D-20-00212 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-20-00212
27. Pluemer M, Dubay S, Drake D, et al. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and coyotes (Canis latrans) in an urban landscape: prevalence and risk factors for disease. J Urban Ecol 2019; 5(1): 1–9. doi: 10.1093/jue/juz022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jue/juz022
28. Martella V, Pratelli A, Cirone F, et al. Detection and genetic characterization of canine distemper virus (CDV) from free-ranging red foxes in Italy. Mol Cell Probes 2002; 16(1):77–83. doi: 10.1006/mcpr.2001.0387 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/mcpr.2001.0387
29. Ferrara G, Brocherel G, Falorni B, Gori R, Pagnini U, Montagnaro S. A retrospective serosurvey of selected pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in the Tuscany region, Italy. Acta Vet Scand 2023; 65(1): 35. doi: 10.1186/s13028-023-00699-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-023-00699-6
30. Sobrino R, Arnal MC, Luco DF, Gortázar C. Prevalence of antibodies against canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus among foxes and wolves from Spain. Vet Microbiol 2008; 126(1/3): 251–6. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.06.014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.06.014
31. López-Peña M, Quiroga MI, Vázquez S, Nieto JM. Detection of canine distemper viral antigen in foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in northwestern Spain. J Wildl Dis 1994; 30(1): 95–8. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-30.1.95 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-30.1.95
32. Gras P, Knuth S, Börner K, et al. Landscape structures affect risk of canine distemper in urban wildlife. Front Ecol Evol 2018; 6: 136. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2018.00136
33. Frölich K, Czupalla O, Haas L, Hentschke J, Dedek J, Fickel J. Epizootiological investigations of canine distemper virus in free-ranging carnivores from Germany. Vet Microbiol 2000; 74(4): 283–92. doi: 10.1016/s0378-1135(00)00192-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00192-9
34. Denzin N, Herwig V, van der Grinten E. Occurrence and geographical distribution of canine distemper virus infection in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Vet Microbiol 2013; 162(1): 214–8. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.08.031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.08.031
35. Geiselhardt F, Peters M, Kleinschmidt S, et al. Neuropathologic and molecular aspects of a canine distemper epizootic in red foxes in Germany. Sci Rep 2022; 12(1): 14691. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-19023-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19023-9
36. Pagh S, Chriél M, Madsen AB, et al. Increased reproductive output of Danish red fox females following an outbreak of canine distemper. Canid Biol & Conserv 2018; 21(3): 12–20.
37. Billinis C, Athanasiou L, Valiakos G, Mamuris Z, Birtsas P, Spyrou V. Phylogenetic analysis of canine distemper viruses from red foxes, Greece. Vet Rec 2013; 173(8): 194. doi: 10.1136/vr.101618 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.101618
38. Nouvellet P, Donnelly CA, Nardi MD, et al. Rabies and canine distemper virus epidemics in the red fox population of northern Italy (2006–2010). PLoS One 2013; 8(4): e61588. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061588 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061588
39. Garigliany M, Sarlet M, Franssen M, et al. Re-emergence of canine distemper in wildlife in Belgium. Vet Rec 2018; 182(15): 439. doi: 10.1136/vr.k1610 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.k1610
40. Randel CJ, Vanherweg WJ. Survey for select pathogens in the desert kit fox (Vulpes macrotis arsipus) in California, USA. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58(3): 631–5. doi: 10.7589/JWD-D-21-00102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-21-00102
41. Jacobson S, Ferro A, Navarro A, et al. Clostridium piliforme and canine distemper virus coinfection in 2 domestic dog littermates and a gray fox kit. J Vet Diagn Invest 2022; 34(5): 894–97. doi: 10.1177/10406387221109899 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387221109899
42. Pope JP, Miller DL, Riley MC, et al. Characterization of a novel canine distemper virus causing disease in wildlife. J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 28(5): 506–13. doi: 10.1177/1040638716656025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638716656025
43. Needle DB, Marr JL, Park CJ, et al. Concurrent infection of skunk adenovirus-1, Listeria monocytogenes, and a regionally specific clade of canine distemper virus in one gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and concurrent listeriosis and canine distemper in a second gray fox. Pathogens 2020; 9(7): 591. doi: 10.3390/pathogens9070591 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9070591
44. Hoff GL, Biler WJ, Proctor SJ, Stallings LP. Epizootic of canine distemper virus infection among urban raccoons and gray foxes. J Wildl Dis 1974; 10(4): 423–8. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-10.4.423 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-10.4.423
45. Black JJ, Baumannt PC. Carcinogens and Cancers in Freshwater Fishes. Environ Health Perspect 1991; 90: 27–33. doi: 10.1289/ehp.90-1519473 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.90-1519473
46. Acosta-Jamett G, Cunningham AA, Bronsvoort BM deC., Cleaveland S. Serosurvey of canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus in wild canids and domestic dogs at the rural interface in the Coquimbo Region, Chile. Eur J Wildl Res 2015; 61: 329–32. doi: 10.1007/s10344-014-0886-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-014-0886-0
47. Acosta-Jamett G, Chalmers WSK, Cunningham AA, Cleaveland S, Handel IG, Bronsvoort BM deC. Urban domestic dog populations as a source of canine distemper virus for wild carnivores in the Coquimbo region of Chile. Vet Microbiol 2011; 152(3/4): 247–57. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.05.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.05.008
48. Martino PE, Montenegro JL, Preziosi JA, et al. Serological survey of selected pathogens of free-ranging foxes in Southern Argentina, 1998-2001. Rev Vet Sci 2004; 23(3): 801–6. doi: 10.20506/rst.23.3.1521 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.23.3.1521
49. Hidalgo-Hermoso E, Cabello J, Vega C, et al. An eight-year survey for canine distemper virus indicates lack of exposure in the endangered Darwin’s fox (Lycalopex fulvipes). J Wildl Dis 2020; 56(2): 482–5. doi: 10.7589/2019-08-195 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/2019-08-195
50. Timm SF, Munson L, Summers BA, et al. A Suspected canine distemper epidemic as the cause of a catastrophic decline in santa catalina island foxes (Urocyon littoralis catalinae). J Wildl Dis 2009; 45(2): 333–43. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-45.2.333 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-45.2.333
51. Clifford DL, Mazet JAK, Dubovi EJ, et al. Pathogen exposure in endangered island fox (Urocyon littoralis) populations: Implications for conservation management. Biol Conserv 2006; 131(2): 230–43. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2006.04.029 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.04.029
52. Stimmelmayr R, Rotstein DS, Maboni G, Person BT, Sanchez S. Morbillivirus-associated lipid pneumonia in Arctic foxes. J Vet Diagn Invest 2018; 30(6):933–6. doi: 10.1177/1040638718797382 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638718797382
53. Slaviero M, Ehlers LP, Lorenzo CD, et al. Anatomopathological and immunohistochemical apects of distemper virus in Crab-eating-foxes and Pampa-foxes. Acta Sci Vet 2019, 47: 1632. doi: 10.22456/1679-9216.90120 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.90120
54. Furtado MM, Hayashi EMK, Allendorf SD, et al. Exposure of free-ranging wild carnivores and domestic dogs to canine distemper virus and parvovirus in the Cerrado of Central Brazil. EcoHealth 2016; 13(3): 549–57. doi: 10.1007/s10393-016-1146-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-016-1146-4
55. Courtenay O, Quinnell RJ, Chalmers WS. Contact rates between wild and domestic canids: no evidence of parvovirus or canine distemper virus in crab-eating foxes. Vet Microbiol 2001; 81(1): 9–19. doi: 10.1016/s0378-1135(01)00326-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(01)00326-1
56. Echeverry-Bonilla DF, Buriticá-Gaviria EF, Orjuela-Acosta D, Chinchilla-Cardenas DJ, Ruiz-Saenz J. The first report and phylogenetic analysis of canine distemper virus in Cerdocyon thous from Colombia. Viruses 2022; 14(9):1947. doi: 10.3390/v14091947 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/v14091947
57. Ferreyra H, Calderón MG, Marticorena D n, Marull C, Leonardo BC. Canine distemper infection in crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) from Argentina. J Wildl Dis 2009; 45(4): 1158–62. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-45.4.1158 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-45.4.1158
58. Hübner S de O, Pappen FG, Ruas JL, Vargas GD, Fischer G, Vidor T. Exposure of pampas fox (Pseudalopex gymnocercus) and crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) from the Southern region of Brazil to Canine distemper virus (CDV), Canine parvovirus (CPV) and Canine coronavirus (CCoV). Braz Arch Biol Technol 2010; 53(3): 593–7. doi: 10.1590/S1516-89132010000300012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-89132010000300012
59. Miller DS, Covell DF, McLean RG, et al. Serologic survey for selected infectious disease agents in swift and Kit foxes from the western United States. J Wildl Dis 2000; 36(4): 798–805. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-36.4.798 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-36.4.798
60. Belsare AV, Vanak AT, Gompper ME. Epidemiology of viral pathogens of free-ranging dogs and Indian foxes in a human-dominated landscape in central India. Transbound Emerg Dis 2014; 61(suppl. 1): 78–86. doi: 10.1111/tbed.12265 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12265
61. Roelke-Parker ME, Munson L, Parker C, et al. A canine distemper virus epidemic in Serengeti lions (Panthera leo). Nature 1996; 379(6564): 441–5. doi: 10.1038/379441a0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/379441a0
62. Meli ML, Simmler P, Cattori V, et al. Importance of canine distemper virus (CDV) infection in free-ranging Iberian lynxes (Lynx pardinus). Vet Microbiol 2010; 146(1/2): 132–7. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.04.024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.04.024
63. Kapil S, Yeary TJ. Canine distemper spillover in domestic dogs from urban wildlife. Vet Clin Small Anim Pract 2011; 41(6): 1069–86. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.08.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.08.005
64. Deem SL, Spelman LH, Yates RA, Montali RJ. Canine distemper in terrestrial carnivores: a review. J Zoo Wildl Med 2000; 31(4): 441–51. doi: 10.1638/1042-7260(2000)031[0441:CDITCA]2.0.CO;2
65. Deem SL. Fungal diseases of birds of prey. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2003; 6(2): 363–76. doi: 10.1016/s1094-9194(03)00004-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1094-9194(03)00004-5
66. Karki M, Rajak KK, Singh RP. Canine morbillivirus (CDV): a review on current status, emergence and the diagnostics. Virusdisease 2022; 33(3): 309–21. doi: 10.1007/s13337-022-00779-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13337-022-00779-7
67. Huang J, Cortey M, Darwich L,et al. Study of canine distemper virus presence in Catalonia’s wild carnivores through H gene amplification and sequencing. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14(3): 436. doi: 10.3390/ani14030436 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14030436
68. Rendon-Marin S, da Fontoura Budaszewski R, Canal CW, Ruiz-Saenz J. Tropism and molecular pathogenesis of canine distemper virus. Virol J 2019; 16(1): 30. doi: 10.1186/s12985-019-1136-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-019-1136-6
69. Duque-Valencia J, Sarute N, Olarte-Castillo XA, Ruíz-Sáenz J. Evolution and interspecies transmission of canine distemper virus—an outlook of the diverse evolutionary landscapes of a multi-host virus. Viruses 2019; 11(7): 582. doi: 10.3390/v11070582 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/v11070582
70. Beineke A, Baumgärtner W, Wohlsein P. Cross-species transmission of canine distemper virus—an update. One Health 2015; 1: 49–59. doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2015.09.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2015.09.002
71. Wang H, Guo H, Hein VG, Xu Y, Yu S, Wang X. The evolutionary dynamics history of canine distemper virus through analysis of the hemagglutinin gene during 1930–2020. Eur J Wildl Res 2023; 69(3): 56. doi: 10.1007/s10344-023-01685-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-023-01685-z
72. Muñoz-Hernández C, Wipf A, Ortega N, et al. Serological and molecular survey of canine distemper virus in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes): exploring cut-off values and the use of protein A in ELISA tests. Prev Vet Med 2023; 221: 106075. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.106075 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.106075
73. Oluka GK, Namubiru P, Kato L,et al. Optimisation and validation of a conventional ELISA and cut-offs for detecting and quantifying anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike, RBD, and Nucleoprotein IgG, IgM, and IgA antibodies in Uganda. Front Immunol 2023; 14: 1113194. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1113194 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1113194
74. Aničić M, Vučićević I, Vasković N, et al. Histopathological characteristics and expression of CDV-NP antigen in the brain of serologically positive spontaneously infected red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) In Western Serbia. Acta Vet (Beogr) 2018; 68(4): 434–44. doi: 10.2478/acve-2018-0035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/acve-2018-0035
75. Zhang Y, Xu G, Zhang L, et al. Development of a double monoclonal antibody–based sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detecting canine distemper virus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020, 104(24): 10725–35. doi: 10.1007/s00253-020-10997-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-020-10997-y
76. Sykes JE, Vandevelde M. Canine distemper virus infection. In: Sykes JE, ed. Greene’s infectious diseases of the dog and cat. 5th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier, 2023: 271–88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-50934-3.00022-7
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Andreia Garcês *, Filipe Silva, Isabel Pires
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
